'O ka ho'ohui waiwai o nā pūnaewele: nā mea lā'au, macro a me microelements

I ka pau'ana o ke kenekulia 19, ua ho'onohonoho'ia kekahi lālā o ka kolomu, he lā'au biochemistry. Nāna e a'o i ka pilikino mele o kahi cell ola. 'O ka hana nui o ka'epekema,'o ia ka cognition o nā peculiarities o ka hanu a me ka ikaika e ho'oponopono ai i ka hana nui o nā pūnaewele a me nā holoholona.

'O ka mana'o o ke kinona hana o nā pūnaewele

Ma muli o ka'imi pono'ana i nā noi'i, ua a'o'ia e nā'epekema ka ho'omehana mele o nā pūnaewele a'ike'ia aia he mau'alemiko ma luna o nā mea ola ma kahi o 85 mau mea ho'ohui. A'o kekahi o lākou he mea koi no nā meaola a pau,'oiai he mau mea'ē a'e kekahi a hiki i loko o nā'anoola ola. A'o ka hapakolu o nā'ano'elemikua aia i loko o nā pūnaewele o nā microorganisms, nā mea kanu a me nā holoholona i nā mea li'ili'i. 'O nā mea'enehana i loko o ke'ano o nā pūnaewele ka mea ma'amau i ke'ano o cations a me nā anions, kahi i ho'omohu'ia ai nā pa'akai a me ka wai, a me nā pūpona'okena carbon-synthesized: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids.

'O nā mea ho'ohui pūnaewele

I ka biochemistry, ua komo lākou i carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, a me ka mea hau. 'O kā lākou piha'ana aia i loko o ke kele mai 88 a 97% o nā kumuhana'e'e i loko. 'O ka mea nui ka carbon. 'O nā mea lā'au a pau i loko o ke kele e kau'ia nā kinikūpika e loa'a ana nā kalapona kala i loko o kā lākou hana. Hiki iā lākou ke ho'ohui i kekahi i kekahi, me nā kaulahao (branched a unbranched), a me nā kau. 'O kēia māmā o ke kalapona kala i lalo i nā'ano mea'oko'a like'ole e lilo i ka cytoplasm a me nā organular cellular.

Eia kekahi la'ana,'o nā mea i loko o ka pūnaewele he mau oligosaccharides, nā proteins hydrophilic, lipids, nā'ano'ano waikawa ribonucleic: RNA transport, RNA ribosomal a me RNA'ike, a me nā monomers free - nucleotides. Oia ka Nine Inch haku mele 'ana i ka halepaahao nucleus. Aia i loko o nā'ōmole o ka acid deoxyribonucleic, ka hapa o nā chromosomes. 'O nā pūnaewele i luna i loko o ko lākou ho'ohui'ana i nā mana o ka hau'oli, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen. 'O kēia ka hō'oia o ko lākou ko'iko'i ko'iko'i,'oiai'o ka ho'ohui'ia'ana o nā pūnaewele e pili ana i ka waihona o nā'ano ho'owaiwai he'enogenic i kūkulu'ia i nā hale pūnaewele: ka hyaloplasm a me nā organelles.

Nā mīkini Macro a me nā mana'o

'O nā meaola lā'au, nā mea i loa'a pinepine'ia i loko o nā pūnaewele o nā'ano meaola like'ole, ua kapa'ia'o macrocals ma ke'ano biochemistry. 'O kā lākou waihona i loko o ke kelepona he 1.2% - 1.9%. 'O nā kelepona o ke kelepona kahi: phosphorus, potassium, chlorine, sulfur, magnesium, calcium, iron and sodium. Hana lākou a pau i nā'oihana ko'iko'i a he mau paukū lākou o nā'ano cellular'ano like'ole. No laila, aia ke kinikohu i loko o ka meaola koko - hemoglobin, e lawe i ka oxygen (i kēia manawa ua kapa'ia'o oxyhemoglobin), carbon dioxide (carbogemoglobin) a carbon carbon monoxide (carboxyhemoglobin).

'O nā huila sodium e hā'awi i ka'ano nui o ka transport intercellular: ka mea i kapa'ia he paila sodium-potassium. 'O lākou kekahi hapa o ka wai'oko'a a me ka plasma koko. Ua noho nā ionic magnesium i nā moleculo chlorophyll (photopigment o nā mea kanu ki'eki'e) a ke komo i ka hana o ke ki'i'ana, no ka mea, hana lākou i ka kikowaena e hopu i nā photons o ka ikehu kukui.

Hō'awi'ia nā'elīluma i nā pulupena pūnana ma nā lālā, a'o ia nō ho'i ka mea nui o nā osteocytes - nā kiwi iwi. Ho'omohola like'ia nā pūpona'okene i loko o ka honua o nā invertebrates, kahi e komo ai nā pūpū i ka carbonate calcium.

Ho'ohui'o Chlorine ions i ka ho'ouka hou'ana i nā membrane pūnaewele a hā'awi i ka'ike o nā pulupalu elela e ho'onāukiuki i ka hau'oli.

'O nā kumukū'au sulfurina kekahi hapa o nā mea ho'omalu pilikino a ho'ohālike i ko lākou papahana kula, "ho'okūkū" i ka kaula polypeptide, i mea e ho'okumu'ia ai kahi mole mole.

'O nā kinona pāpona e komo i ka lawe'ana o nā mea ma loko o nā membrane pūnaewele. 'O nā kumukūlā o ka'ōpokō he māhele ia o ka mea ikaika nui e like me ka adenosine triphosphoric acid, a me kahi mea nui o nā molecule o nā deoxyribonucleic a me ribonucleic acids,'o ia nā mea nui o ka heredity pūnaewele.

Nā hana o nā microelements i loko o ke kamepiula pūnaewele

Ma kahi o 50 mau mīkini elemoku, kahi i emi iho ma lalo o 0.1% ma nā pūnaewele, ua kapa'ia he microele. Ho'okomo kēia mau mea me ka zinc, ka molybdenum, ka iodine, ka'aila, ka'alea, ka fluorine. Me ka'olu'olu'ole o lākou, hana lākou i nā hana nui loa, no ka mea, he mau mea lākou o nā mea'oihana lā'au.

Eia kekahi la'ana, aia nā'ōmoa zinc i loko o ka lā'au insulin (ka hormone o ka pancreas e ho'oponopono ana i ke ki'eki'e o ka blood glucose),'o ka iodine he hapa nui ia o nā hormones thyroid - thyroxine and triiodothyronine, ka mea e mālama i ke ki'eki'e o ka hanu ana i loko o ke kino. 'O ke kinona, me nā'eiona hao, komo i ka hematopoiesis (ke kūkulu'ia'ana o erythrocytes, platelets a me nā leukocytes i loko o ka momona o nā iwi momona). 'O nā kinona kupa kekahi hapa o ka pua'a o ka hemocyanin i loko o ke koko o nā invertebrates, e like me nā mollusks. No laila, he'ano uliuli ke'ano o ka hemolymph.

'Oi ka mea li'ili'i i loko o ka pūnaewele o nā'ano kinikona e like me ke alaka'i, gula, bromine, kālā. Kapa'ia lākou he mau ultraicroelements a he mau lālā o nā mea kanu a me nā meaola holoholona. Eia kekahi la'ana, i ka huapalapala o ka palaoa, ua'ike'ia nā kinona gula e ka kānana kilokilo. Ho'okomo'ia nā kumamā o nā bromine ma kahi nui i ka ho'ohui'ana o nā pūla'i thallus o nā algae'ōma'oma'u a me ka ulaula, e like me ka sargassum, kelp, fucus.

Hō'ike nā mea a pau a me nā mea i hō'ike'ia e pili ana i ka pilikino, nā hana a me ke'ano o ke kele. Hō'ike ka papa ma lalo nei i ka'enehana o nā'ano mehana i loko o nā pū o nā meaola ola.

Nā'ano o nā mea lā'au lā'au

'O nā kinikona o nā pūnaewele o nā'ano like'ole o nā mea olaola e hilina'i'ia ma kekahi'ano ma nā pahu carbon, a'o ka hapa o ia mea he 50% ka nui o ka pūnaewele. 'O ke'ano o nā mea malo'o a pau o ke kele e hō'ike'ia ana e nā ha'alulu, nā proteins, nā mea'onike nucleic a lipid, i loa'a kahi'ano pa'a a me ka kaumaha lahilahi. Ua kapa'ia kēlā mau moleculo he macromolecules (polymers) a he mau māmā ma'alahi - monomers. He mea nui loa ka hana a nā mea pā'ani'a a hana i nā hana he nui, e kūkā'ia ma lalo nei.

'O ka hana o nā protein i loko o ke kele

'O ka'ike'ana o nā mea kanu i loko o kahi cell ola e ho'opa'a i ka mea ki'eki'e o nā mea lā'au e like me nā protein i loko. 'O kēia mea'oia'i'o, he wehewehe'ike pono: nā ho'omalu e hana i nā'ano hana like'ole a komo i nā hō'ike a pau o ke ola pūnaewele.

Eia kekahi la'ana,'o ka hana palekana o nā proteinia ka ho'okumu'ia'ana o nā'ele'ele - immunoglobulins, i hana'ia e nā lymphocytes. 'O nā protein kūkulu ho'omalu, e like me ka thrombin, fibrin a me ka thromboblastin, hā'awi'ia ke koko a me ka pale'ana i kona poho i nā'eha a me nā pō'ino. Aia i loko o ke kelepona nā māmā pa'akikī o nā membrane pa'akikī, a'o ka mea hiki ke ho'omaopopo i nā pūhui haole - antigens. Hiki ke ho'ololi i kā lākou ho'onohonoho'ana a ho'omaopopo i ka pūnaewele o ka pilikia e'ike'ia (hana hō'ailona).

'O kekahi mau mea ho'omalu e hana i ka hana ho'oponopono a he mau hormones ia, e like me ke'ano o oxytocin, i hana'ia e ka hypothalamus, i mālama'ia e ka pituitary gland. Ke komo'ana i loko o ke koko, oxytocin e pā ana i nā paia muscular o ka pūpū, e hana i ka'aelike. Ho'opiha'ia ka palahalaha e ka palahalaha i ke ka'ina hana, e ho'oholo i ke kahe o ke koko.

I loko o nā pūpū muscle he actin a me myosin, hiki ke hana ku'ikahi,'o ia ke kumu o ka hana ka'a o ke kino. No nā mea ho'omalu, pono ka hana'ana i nā pīpī, no ka mea he la'ana, ho'ohana'ia ka albumin e ke embryo i kumu kūkeke no kona ulu'ana. 'O nā meaola ola o nā meaola like'ole, e like me ka hemoglobin a me hemocyanin, e halihali i nā meaola o ka oxygen - e hana i kahi'oihana halihali. Inā'oi aku ka ikaika o nā mea ikaika, e like me nā hamo a me nā lipid, e ho'omaka ana ke kele e wāwahi i nā proteins. Ho'okahi kaona o kēia waiwai e hā'awi iā 17, 2 kJ o ka ikehu. 'O kekahi o nā'oihana ko'iko'i o nā proteinia he catalytic (protein-enzymes e ho'onui i nā ho'oikaika pa'a kino e hana'ia ma ke keena o ka cytoplasm). Ma muli o kēia mau mea i'ōlelo'ia ma mua, ua maopopo mākou he mau hana nui ka mea ho'omalu e hana i nā hana nui loa a he māhele ia o ka pūnaewele holoholona.

'O ka Biosynthesis o ka protein

E no'ono'o e pili ana i ke'ano o ka ho'omana'o pilikino i loko o ke kamepiula e hana'ia ma ka cytoplasm me ke kōkua o nā organelles e like me ka ribosomes. Mahalo i ka'oihana o nā enzymes'ano'ē, me ka komo'ana o nā ioni calcium, ua hui pū'ia nā ribosomes i polysomes. 'O nā hana nui o nā ribosomes i loko o ke kelepona ka ho'omau o nā moleculo protein, e ho'omaka me ka hana o ka transcription. A'o ka hopena, ho'ohui'ia nā mole mRNA, kahi i ho'ohui'ia ai nā polysomes. A laila ka ho'omaka o ka hana'elua - unuhi. Ho'ohui'ia nā RNA me nā'ano'ano'aila amino he 20 a lawe'ia lākou i nā polysomes, a ma muli o ka hana o nā ribosomes i loko o ke kele,'o ia ka inoa o polypeptides, ua hana'ia kēia mau'ano o ka complexes me ka tRNA, a ua hui pū'ia nā molecona amino acid e nā peptide bond e hana i ka macromolecule protein.

'O ka hana o ka wai i nā hana hana kūmole

Ua ho'okūpa'a'ia e ke kula ha'aha'a ka mea o ka pūnaewele, ka hale a me ka ho'ohui'ana o ia mea, he 70% ka wai, a ma nā holoholona he nui e alaka'i i ke ola wai (e like me ke'ano, coelenterates), ua pi'i kona mau helu i ka 97-98%. Ma nānaina o keia Nine Inch hui o aeee nā hydrophilic (hiki o ka mea hoʻoheheʻeʻia) a me ka hydrophobic (wai-repellent)ʻia. Ma ke'ano he pola pola nui, nui ke kuleana o ka wai a pololei ka pili'ana i nā'oihana wale nō, akā,'o ke'ano o ka pūnaewele. Hō'ike ka papa ma lalo nei i ka mea wai i loko o nā pū o nā'ano like'ole o nā meaola ola.

Ke hana o nā wai'ale'a i loko o ka hale

E like me kā mākou i'ike mua ai, nā mea nui o ka wai'ahuka waiwai nui - polymers. 'O kēia mau mea he mau polysaccharides, oligosaccharides a me monosaccharides. 'O nā'ōpalima ka hapa o ka nui o nā complexes - glycolipids a me glycoproteins, a me nā'ano o nā pēpili pū me nā supramembrane, e like me ka glycocalyx, i kūkulu'ia.

Ho'ohui'ia i ka carbon,'o nā'ōpona'okāpi'a he nui ke oxygen a me nā hydrogen atom, a'o ka polysaccharides pū kekahi me ka'aila, sulfur, a me ka phosphorus. Nui nā kōmomi'okena'enelea:'o ka'oihana potato a hiki i 90% starch, i nā kumulā'au a me nā hua'ona'ale'alea a hiki i ka 70%, a ma loko o nā pūlū manu e hana'ia ma ke'ano o ka hui e like me glycogen, chitin me trehalose.

'O nā mea ma'amau (monosaccharides) ke'ano ma'amau CnH2nOn a ua māhele'ia i nā tetroses, trioses, pentoses and hexoses. 'O nā mea hope'elua he mea ma'amau ia i nā pūnaewele o nā meaola ola, e like paha me ka ribose a me ka deoxyribose kekahi hapa o ka mea nucleic acids, a'o ka glucose a me ka fructose e komo ana i ka hopena a me ka haunaele. Loa'a'ia nā Oligosaccharides i nā ki'ikuhi kanu: ua mālama'ia ka sucrose i loko o ka pakela a me nā pūkuniahi kō kōkeke, aia ka maltose i loko o ka'ohi'ohi o ka rai a me ka bale.

He mea'ono ka'ono a hiki ke ma'alahi i ka wai. 'O nā Polysaccharides, he po'e biopolymers, ke'ano o ka starch, cellulose, glycogen a laminarin. 'O kā Chitin e pili ana i nā papa hana polysaccharides. 'O ka hana nui o nā ha'alulu i loko o ke kelepa he ike. 'O ka hopena o ka hydrolysis a me nā ho'onāuki o ka ho'okau'ia'ana o ka ikehu, polysaccharides i ho'oka'awale'ia me ka glucose, a laila ua ho'ohemo'ia i carbon dioxide a me ka wai. Ma muli o ia hopena, ua ho'oku'u'ia kahi'ekahi o ka glucose 17.6 kJ o ka ikehu, a me nā lā'au o ka starch a me ka glycogen, he'oia'i'o, he loko o ka pūnaewele pūnaewele.

Ho'ohui nui'ia'o Glycogen i loko o nā'i'o musopa a me nā pūpa'a pili, ka ho'oulu hua'ai i loko o nā'ano'ano, nā aniani, nā a'a pakiaka, nā'ano'ano, a me nā'ano ohe, e like me nā pūngāpiu, nā nūnū a me nā mea'eneka.

'Oko'a ka'ōpelu i nā lipids a me nā protein ma ka hiki'ole i ka hō'emi'ole o ka oxygen. He mea ko'iko'i kēia no nā meaola e ola ana ma nā'ano hemahema a nele'ole o ka oxygen, e like me ke'ano o nā bacteria anaerobic a me helminths - nā pā'ani a me nā holoholona.

'O kekahi hana'ē a'e o nā ha'alea i loko o ke kele - kūkulu (kūkulu'ana). Aia i loko o ka'oia'i'o o kēia mau mea ke kāko'o o nā pūnaewele. Eia kekahi la'ana, he'ano o ka cellulose o nā paia o nā mea kanu,'o ka chitin e hana i ka'eke o nā'ano invertebrates a hana'ia ma nā pūnaewele fungal,'o nā olisaccharides me nā lipid a me nā kinikalane i kūkulu i kahi'āpana glycocalyx-supramembrane. Hā'awi ia i ka pilina - kāpili'ana o nā pū'ai holoholona ma waena o lākou iho, e hiki ai i ke kūkulu'ia'ana o nā'i'o.

'O lipids: ka hanana a me ka hana

Hiki ke ho'iho'i'ia kēia mau mea'ele'ele (hydrophobic) (wai'ole hiki'ole ke holoi),'o ia ho'i, lawe'ia mai nā pūnaewele e nā mea non-polar e like me ka acetone a chloroform. 'O nā hana o lipids i loko o ke kele e hilina'i'ia ma kahi o nā hui'ekolu i komo i: nā momona, nā waxes a me nā steroid. Ho'okomo pinepine'ia nā momona i nā'ano o nā pūnaewele.

Animals loaa ia i loko o ka subcutaneous adipose'aʻaʻa, neural'aʻaʻa he momona i loko o ka palapala o ka myelin wahī o nā aʻalolo. Hō'ili'ili'ia ia i loko o nā pu'upa'a, ka inaina, i nā'īkoi - ma ke kino momona. Loa'a nā momona o nā wai - ka'aila - i nā'ano kanu o nā mea kanu he nui:'o ka kedera, ka pīni, ka'ili, olive. 'O ka'āpana lipid i loko o nā kelepa e like ia me 5 a 90% (i loko o ke kiko o ke kino).

'Oko'a nā'ōpena a me nā wax i nā momona ma muli'ole o ka loa'a'ana o nā wai'ona i ka wai'ale'a ma nā mole. No laila,'o nā mea hi'ona ka hormones o ka papa cortical o nā adrenals, ka mea e pili ana i ka ho'omana'ana o ke kino a he mau māhele o ka testosterone. He mau lālā lākou o nā huaora (e like me ka hua'aina D).

'O nā hana nui o ka lipids i loko o ke kelepa he ikaika, kūkulu a pale. 'O ka mea mua ma muli nō o ka 1 gram o nā momona i ka wā o ka ho'opili'ana ua loa'a i ka 38.9 kJ ka ikaika -'oi aku ka nui o nā meaola - protein a me nā'ōpelu. Eia kekahi, i ka ho'onā'ana i ka momona o ka momona, aneane 1.1 gr i ho'oku'u'ia. Wai. 'O ia ke kumu e hiki ai i kekahi mau holoholona ke lako i ka momona i ko lākou kino ke noho me ka wai'ole no ka wā lō'ihi. 'O kekahi la'ana, hiki ke moe i nā lā'elua ma mua o ka loa'a'ole o ka wai, a'a'ole he kamela e inu wai i ka wā e hele ai ma ka wao nahele no 10-12 mau lā.

'O ka hana hale o ka lipids, he mea nui ia o nā membrane pa'akikī, a he'ano nō ho'i o nā a'alolo. 'O ka hana ho'omalu o ka lipids,'o kahi momona o nā momona ma lalo o ka'ili e pili ana i nā pu'upa'a a me nā mea i loko o ka'ōpū e pale ia lākou mai nā'eha mechanical. 'O kahi hana ho'onani wela kūpono he mea ma'amau i nā holoholona i komo i loko o ka wai no ka manawa lō'ihi: nā kohola, nā sila, a sila. 'O kahi'ōko'ona momona o ke kino o nā mea i hana'ia e like me ke kahawai he 0.5 m,'o ia ka mea e pale ai i ka holoholona mai ka mīkini loloka.

'O ke ko'iko'i o ka oxygen i loko o ke kahe pūnaewele

'O nā meaola'ele'ele,'o ia ka nui o nā holoholona, nā mea kanu a me nā kānaka, e ho'ohana i ka oxygen o ka ea no ka ho'oikaika i ka hopena o ka mea'ai a me ka ho'oku'u'ia'ana o ka nui o ka ikehu i ho'onui'ia ma ke'ano o nā molecuka o adenosine triphosphate.

Ke'ī mai, me ka piha'okesaside o kekahi kameleona o ka monakō koko e ia lŘlŘ ma ka mitochondrial cristae, 2800 kJ o ka ikehu ua anao? Aou, o ka a 1596 kJ (55%) ua waiho i loko o ka palapala o ATP nā lātoma i loaʻa ka macroergic pilina. Penei, ka iniiaiie hana o ka o oxygen i loko o ka halepaahao - i ka manaʻo o aerobic ka hanu, a ua nānā 'ana ma luna o ka pūʻulu o enzymatic reactions ai-kapaia naehana kaula ' ia i loko o organelles - mitochondria. Ma prokaryotic meaola - phototrophic koʻohune a me cyanobacteria -'okesaside o ka mahuaola ia lŘlŘ ma lalo o ka aoao o ka o oxygen diffusing i loko o na keena ma ka na protuberances o ka wai koko membranes.

Mākou i Nine Inch hui o aeee i ua? Anoee, e like me ka keʻano o ka hanaʻana o ke kumuʻiʻo hoʻololi kemikala a me ka oxygen ma hana ana ma ke kelepona hele ikehu pūnao.